These articles involve revisions to many physical and chemical concepts. But ultimately, it all stems from a correct understanding of electrons, especially unpaired electrons. The electric field strength of an electron is the same as that of a hydrogen nucleus, but the mass ratio is 1:1800. When these two particles with opposite charges are placed in the same system (hydrogen atom), the electron must orbit the nucleus at 10⁶ m/s. This speed means that in one minute, an electron can travel around the Earth three times. Then the moving path of an electron around its nucleus looks like a shell. Considering this fact, other new insights naturally arise.

1. New understanding of atomic structure

If an atom has multiple electrons, electrons in different orbits within the same shell will meet. Due to the repulsive force of negative charges, non-circular p, d, and f sub-orbits will form. Sub-orbits with the same energy will point in different directions due to their proper spatial distribution; for example, five d orbits. Electron spin is an undeniable fact. When two electrons with opposite spins combine, they cancel out orbital magnetism and enter a lower energy state. Unpaired electron produces whirl-shaped magnetic field around its orbit. This is the root of all physical and chemical activities.

This newly proposed atomic model (based on Bohr’s shell atomic model) can give the real meaning of Pauli’s four quantum numbers (n, l, m, and s).

n: Main shells.
l: Sub-orbits determined by repulsion.
m: Different orientations of the same sub-orbits (detectable by Zeeman effect).
s: Paired and unpaired electron configurations.

2. Re-understanding of wave-particle duality

This involves a major scientific error that persisted for a century. It stemmed from de Broglie's neglect of the production of X-rays and his hasty assertion that electrons possess wave-particle duality. Schrödinger adopted only half of de Broglie's proposal, considering electrons to be waves, while ignoring the fact that electrons are particles with negative electric fields. The resulting theory completely obscured the experimental works of Lenard, Röntgen, Siegbahn, Barkla, Thomson, Millikan, and others. Experimental evidences are far more important than theories.

Maxwell-Lorenz electrodynamics stated that electromagnetic waves must be produced whenever electricity carriers alter their velocity. De Broglie’s electron beam striking a crystal, would produce X-rays (electromagnetic waves).

Schrödinger's electron cloud density theory directly led to misunderstandings about various chemical bonds.

3. Chemical bonds (covalent, double, triple, metallic and lone pair)

Covalent bond is the most important binding in nature. It involves the sharing of two electrons between two atoms. According to Schrödinger's orbital theory, a covalent bond is formed at the region where the two electron clouds overlap to their maximum extent. In reality, it's the opposite: the region where the positive electric fields of the two atomic nuclei overlap to provide the space for electron movement. This explains both two-electrons and one-electron covalent bonds.

A double bond consists of a covalent bond and two parallel unpaired electrons orbiting the two atomic nuclei above and below a covalent bond. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) has long confirmed the magnetism of double bonds. Logically, the electric field of the atomic nuclei in front and behind a covalent bond could also accommodate two parallel unpaired electrons, thus forming a triple bond structure.

Metallic bonds and covalent bonds are often the dividing line between physical and chemical properties. But in essence, they are unified. For example, C, Si, Ge, Sn and Pb all have four unpaired electrons. The larger the ion cores, the more difficult to share the electrons and the more metallic properties. Grey Sn and white Sn are just at the critical point between covalent bonding and metallic bonding.

Lone pairs of electrons, like double bonds, participate in aromatic ring currents and are therefore magnetic. The only difference is whether they orbit one atom or two. Recent research in electronic components and LEDs has extensively involved the electromagnetic properties of lone pairs of electrons.

4. Thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity

The mechanisms of these two types of conductivity are fundamentally different. The most illustrative example is the comparison of the thermal and electrical conductivity of copper and diamond. Diamond has a thermal conductivity thousands of times higher than copper, but it is an insulator and does not conduct electricity.

Heat is transferred through the vibration motion of the atoms, and electricity is transmitted through the jumping motion of the unpaired electron orbits. Einstein's understanding of superconductivity is close to my current understanding of it. However, because he couldn't distinguish between thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity, he ultimately failed to arrive at a reasonable explanation.

5. Mechanism of superconductivity

Once the mechanism of electrical conduction is correctly understood, superconductivity becomes clear. When the unpaired electron orbits are widely spaced, it is a Mott-insulator; when the distance is moderate, it is a regular conductor with resistance. If the orbits are in contact with each other and there is no spatial distance, it is a superconductor.

The BCS theory posits that lattice contraction leads to the formation of Cooper-pairs of electrons with opposite spins, which is the cause of superconducting current. Firstly, electron pairs with opposite spins have extremely low energy and cannot flow. Secondly, the one-dimensional superconducting current observed in the Hall effect of a two-dimensional electron gas is independent of lattice contraction. Thirdly, the BCS theory cannot explain the strong diamagnetic properties of superconducting materials.

Strong diamagnetism arises from the contact between unpaired electron orbits. Normally, electron spins roll perpendicular to their orbits. Under an external magnetic field, the spins align with the field, making the outer orbits paramagnetic and the inner orbits diamagnetic. The entire magnetism of matter is decided by the ratio of the magnetic field line densities inside and outside the orbits. If the orbits get in contact, the system turns into complete diamagnetism.

Cooling and pressurization will force the orbits into contact to achieve superconductivity. Irradiation with light can expand the orbits to result in contact and superconductivity.

6. Ordinary Hall effect and quantum Hall effect

Hall used gold leaf to conduct his experiment. Gold had only one unpaired electron in the round s-orbit. In the ultra-thin sheet, the s-orbits were almost parallel to the surface. Under 1 Tesla magnetic field, the electron spin aligned to external magnetic field, and the orbits were total parallel to the surface. External electric field made the velocities of the electrons in orbits different against or along the electric field, which resulted in the magnetic force difference driving the electron orbit to drift laterally. Therefore, some materials that are insulators in the direction of the main current can still generate a strong Hall voltage. The Hall effect occurs when the electric field, magnetic field, and magnetic force difference are satisfied in three perpendicular directions.

Von Klitzing repeatedly emphasized these three perpendicular directions in his paper on the quantum Hall effect, and this is the reason. He proposed that electrons in a two-dimensional electron gas system undergo cyclotron motion, which is consistent with the s-orbit configuration in the ordinary Hall effect. Why was von Klitzing able to obtain the fundamental constant of nature, R_k=h/e², in industrial materials? This is because the two-dimensional electron gas is a very pure system; electron orbits are only affected by magnetic forces, and are not dragged by the positive electric field of atomic nuclei.

The intervention of a strong magnetic field forces the orbit to contract. This contraction corresponds to a reduction in the circumference of the electron electric field sphere by an integer multiple, thereby minimizing the change in the system's energy. This is the root of the quantum Hall effect.

External magnetic fields acting on unpaired electron orbits can be classified into three categories. In the absence of a magnetic field or with a weak magnetic field, the superposition of orbital magnetic fields of unpaired electrons inside the sample plays a significant role in the lateral drift of the orbits. The spin Hall effect and topological insulators are good examples. In fact, any current flowing through the wire will cause lateral movement of the orbits; however, a strong main current masks this phenomenon. So, various Hall effects are observed under low current conditions.

In a moderate magnetic field (about 1 Tesla), the electron spin is completely aligned with the direction of the external magnetic field; within this range, the Hall effect and the Stern-Gerlach effect can be observed. In a strong magnetic field (up to 20 Tesla and above), the quantum Hall effect occurs.

7. Benzene and aromatic compounds

Kekulé's oscillation structure of benzene ring, proposed 160 years ago, is essentially correct. Any two adjacent carbon atoms were connected part of time by a single bond and part of time by a double bond. My recently proposed double-bond structure, combined with the Kekulé structure, perfectly explains the ring current and additional magnetism of the benzene ring. This actually stems from a correct understanding of how ordinary currents are formed. The jumping motion of unpaired electron orbits creates an electric current. This also explains the conductivity mechanism of conductive polymers, where the jumping motion of π-electron orbits in the double bond forms an electric current.

In aromatic compounds, the magnetic field generated by the ring current and the magnetic field generated by π-orbits coexist. The NMR result of [14] annulene, inside (4H) 0.0 ppm, outside (10H) 7.6 ppm, is the best evidence.

The latest reported cyclo [18] carbon can be well explained by the newly proposed double and triple bond structures. The π-orbits parallel to the ring plane can move constantly, while the π-orbits on the sides cannot move. This explained the exchange of polyyne and cumulene structures.

8. Electronic structure of graphene

The bond length of graphene is 1.42 Å, while that of the benzene ring is 1.40 Å. In 1929, Lonsdale's experiment confirmed that the six hydrogen atoms on the benzene ring were replaced by six CH₃ atoms, resulting in a C-C bond length of 1.42 Å on the C₆(CH₃)₆ ring. Therefore, the electronic structure of the benzene ring can be used to describe graphene. The large number of unpaired π-electrons endows graphene with properties distinctly different from hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN). These closely packed π orbits make graphene diamagnetic, consistent with the formation of diamagnetism in superconductors. The unpaired π-electrons in the upper and lower layers effectively form two electron gas systems, leading to the quantum Hall effect.

If the Dirac electronic structure of graphene is introduced, many of graphene's excellent properties will be buried, for example, superconductivity under irradiation, ambipolar electric field effect of single layer graphene, superconductivity in Ca-Intercalated bilayer graphene, superconductivity in twisted bilayer and trilayer graphene.

9. New interpretation of Stern-Gerlach space quantization of atomic spins

Their experiments merely attempted to move closer to the quantum realm without delving into deeper considerations. The split pattern of the atomic spins on the screen could never be achieved two clear spots, but two connected bands, why? The inhomogeneous magnetic field changed not only in the longitude direction, but also in the horizontal direction. What is the contribution of the horizontal direction? The most commonly used neutral atoms were Ag, H, Na, K, Cu and Au. Why? These atoms all contain only one unpaired electron in their s-orbits. The magnetic field densities on the right and left of the orbit is different. The magnetic force difference on the orbit drives the atom to deviate from the atom beam path. The pattern is the trajectory of the atoms. It is not space quantization of atomic spins.

10. Levitation of water drop in strong magnetic field (20 Tesla).

As is well known, water molecule contains two lone pairs of electrons, which are identical to π-electrons, differ from orbiting either one or two atoms. This has been repeatedly confirmed in aromatic compounds. Normally, because lone pair has 360° of freedom around it elliptical axis, it shows no magnetism. A strong magnetic field forces the electrons' spin and orbits to orient in the same direction. Due to the densely packed orbits in aggregated liquids, water drop exhibits strong diamagnetic property, as in superconductors and graphene, and float in strong magnetic field.

11. Lone pair and hole.

Lone pairs of electrons have demonstrated their versatile properties in many materials. For example, lattice vacancy in diamond NV⁺¹ (BV^-1, SiV⁰) quenching due to without hole, luminescence of NV⁰ (SiV^-1) and NV^-1 lone pair to hole, spin Hall effect of GaAs semiconductor, luminescence of Ga(N, P, As, Sb) and (B, Al, Ga, In) N, luminescence of Zincblende I-VII, II-VI and III-V quantum dots, WTe₂ topological insulator to superconductor, MoSe₂ (Family ME₂) Se atoms are more likely used to measure free movement (lone pairs), bismuth quantum spin Hall effect, Kagome compound (KV₃Sb₅) giant anomalous Hall effect, etc.

In short, the crucial role of the lone pairs of electrons in electronics is still not fully understood.

Facit:

The most active parts of matter are unpaired electrons, π-electrons, and lone pairs, which possess orbital magnetism. A correct understanding of them will greatly advance the development of materials science.