Analogies as a teaching tool

Using well-designed analogies in the classroom can improve learning. In this article, the authors provide a framework for designing analogy-based teaching interventions. They highlight 5 key principles, including: ensuring all students are familiar with the source material in the analogy; clearly mapping how the new information relates to the source (analogous) material, perhaps by utilizing visual cues and representations; and encouraging students to generate their own analogies for the new material. The authors believe that well-designed analogies will help students’ conceptual understanding in STEM and non-STEM fields.

Gray and Holyoak (2021) Teaching by analogy: From theory to practice. Mind, Brain, and Education DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/mbe.12288

Internal brain state drives memory encoding

Our memories store some things effortlessly, but at other times laying down memories can be hard work. What accounts for this difference? Although studies have identified neural signatures of successful memory encoding, it hasn’t been clear if these reflect external factors like the position of an item in a list, or internal factors like a person’s motivation or attention.

In this study, researchers used a statistical method to control for the effect of external factors. This meant they could work out the importance of internal brain state at the time of memory encoding. They found that a person’s cognitive state during encoding was the main predictor of later memory recall, with some of their data suggesting attention may be especially important. Something worth remembering in this age of distraction!

Weidemann and Kahana (2021) Neural measures of subsequent memory reflect endogenous variability in cognitive function. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 47(4): 641-651 DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000966

Remembering the gist, not the details

By recalling a memory, we can strengthen it. In this study, researchers asked if all aspects of memory benefit from recall, or if some are favored over others.

After studying a series of objects, participants practised recalling either perceptual details (was the object shown as a photo or drawing?) or conceptual details (was the object animate or inanimate?). When tested straight after this practice, the time to answer perceptual vs. conceptual questions was similar. But 48 hours later, people found it easier to recall conceptual elements. According to the authors, this supports the idea that memories become “gistified” over time and with repeated recall, as our brains prioritise information that can be integrated into our existing knowledge of the world.

Lifanov et al. (2021) Feature-specific reaction times reveal a semanticisation of memories over time and with repeated remembering. Nature Communications 12: 3177 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-23288-5

Test format shapes learning strategy

Do students tweak their study strategies based on the assessment format they expect? For example if expecting multiple choice questions, do students study differently to if they were expecting an essay question?

Here, researchers perform a series of carefully controlled studies to show that learners do indeed adapt their strategies based on test format, leading to improved performance when they receive the test they expect. This isn’t simply a matter of studying more for a format perceived as more difficult (e.g. long answer vs. multiple choice), but reflects how they study. This was evident through experiments the researchers performed, and also from learners’ self-report of their study strategies. While perhaps not unexpected, this knowledge could prove useful for teachers considering what form of assessment to use in the classroom.

Rivers and Dunlosky (2021) Are test-expectancy effects better explained by changes in encoding strategies or differential test experience? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 47(2): 195-207 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000949