William R. Polk (2018) "Crusade and Jihad: The Thousand-Year War Between the Muslim World and the Global North", New Haven: Yale University Press, 599 p.; price: $40 (Hardcover), ISBN: 9780300222906.

Throughout history, interactions between the Muslim world and the great powers of the global North — including Europe, Russia, China, Britain and America — have been characterised by periods of cooperation, conquest and conflict. William R. Polk’s "Crusade and Jihad" (2018, Yale University Press, USA) offers an important historical account of these encounters and examines how imperialism, colonialism and resistance have shaped the course of world history. By examining the rise and fall of Islamic civilisation, European colonial expansion and the long-term consequences of these historical interactions, Polk offers a nuanced and evidence-based analysis of why tensions persist today. This essay expands on the main themes of the book and demonstrates how historical forces have contributed to today's geopolitical struggles.

Rise and Golden Age of Islamic Civilisation

Islamic civilisation played a crucial role in shaping the global intellectual, economic and political landscape from the 7th to the 15th centuries. After the emergence of Islam on the Arabian Peninsula, the new faith spread rapidly across North Africa, Spain, the Middle East and Asia. The Caliphate of Córdoba in Spain (al-Andalus) became a beacon of intellectual progress, fuelling advances in medicine, astronomy, philosophy and mathematics. At a time when much of Europe was in the Dark Ages, cities such as Baghdad, Cairo and Córdoba were thriving centres of learning and trade.
This period of prosperity also saw a religious and cultural exchange between Muslims, Christians and Jews. Scholars such as Averroes (Ibn Rushd) and Avicenna (Ibn Sina) preserved and expanded Greek and Roman knowledge and influenced the European Renaissance centuries later. The dominance of the Muslim world in science and trade remained largely unchallenged until new military threats arose, particularly from Mongol invasions and later European colonial powers.

Decline and impact of colonialism

The decline of the Islamic world’s supremacy can be attributed to several factors, including internal fragmentation, external invasions and the rise of European naval empires. The Mongol invasions of the 13th century devastated many Islamic cultural and economic centres, particularly in Persia and Central Asia. The destruction of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258 signalled the end of the intellectual and political supremacy of the Abbasid Caliphate.
At the same time, European nations— - empowered by the Renaissance, the scientific revolution and advances in shipping — began to expand overseas. The Portuguese were the first European power to challenge Muslim supremacy in world trade, followed by the Dutch, British and French. European colonial expansion not only changed world trade, but also led to the economic and political subjugation of large Muslim-majority regions.
One of the most impressive examples of the colonial impact was India. The British East India Company, founded in the early 17th century, gradually took control of India, exploiting local antagonisms and implementing economic policies that destroyed local industries. The textile industry, once an important economic pillar in Mughal India, was deliberately suppressed to favour British industrial production. Similar economic exploitation took place in Egypt under British rule, as well as in the Ottoman Empire, which was systematically weakened by its economic dependence on the European powers.
Russian expansion into Central Asia also had lasting consequences. The Russian Empire systematically dismantled the political and cultural institutions of the predominantly Muslim regions, suppressed local resistance and replaced the local leadership with colonial administrators. In China, the Qing dynasty’s brutal campaigns against the Muslim population in Xinjiang led to mass killings, forced resettlement and cultural eradication — a topic that is still relevant today.

19th and 20th centuries: Humiliation and resistance

In the 19th century, a large part of the Muslim world was subjected to colonial rule. For Europe and Russia, this was an era of territorial expansion and industrial progress, but for the Muslim world it was an era of defeat and humiliation. Millions of people were displaced, economies were destroyed and local traditions were eroded under foreign rule.
Muslim societies tried various strategies to resist European hegemony. Some leaders tried to modernise by adopting Western military structures and institutions, while others turned to religious and nationalist movements. The Mahdist uprising in Sudan (1881–1898), the resistance of Imam Shamil in the Caucasus against Russian imperialism and the anti-colonial struggles in Algeria against French rule are all examples of determined resistance to foreign rule.
But even after gaining independence in the 20th century, many Muslim-majority countries struggled to recover from the economic and political damage caused by colonialism. Newly established states often fell into a cycle of authoritarian rule, corruption and internal conflict, partly due to the artificial borders and weak institutions left behind by colonial powers. In countries such as Iraq, Syria and Libya, Western intervention and Cold War geopolitics further destabilised the region, leading to civil wars, insurgencies and ongoing instability.

Consequences: A modern legacy of conflict

The legacies of these historical encounters continue to shape global politics today. The forced economic restructuring of the colonial era left many post-colonial states struggling with poverty and underdevelopment. The borders and political divisions imposed by the European powers were the breeding ground for many ongoing conflicts, such as those in the Middle East and Central Asia.
In addition, Western military interventions in the late 20th and early 21st centuries — such as the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq — have reinforced the perception of a continuing crusade against the Muslim world. The so-called “war on terror” launched by the United States after 11 September 2001 has often been framed in the language of historical conflict and has reinforced deep-seated grievances. Meanwhile, the rise of extremist groups such as ISIS and Al-Qaeda can be traced in part to the historical traumas of colonial rule, economic devastation and foreign military intervention.
However, Polk’s "Crusade and Jihad" is not just a narrative of conflict, but also highlights moments of coexistence and co-operation. From the multicultural society of al-Andalus to modern diplomatic and economic partnerships, there have always been opportunities for dialogue and mutual understanding. By critically examining history, societies today can seek ways to reconcile instead of repeating the mistakes of the past.

Conclusion

William R. Polk’s "Crusade and Jihad" offers an invaluable perspective on the historical underpinnings of today’s geopolitical struggles. By analysing the rise and fall of Islamic civilisation, the spread of European imperialism, and the long-term effects of colonial rule, Polk helps the reader understand why tensions between the Muslim world and the global North persist. His fact-based approach challenges simplistic narratives and challenges readers to consider the complex interplay of history, power, and resistance.
Understanding these historical patterns is important not only for historians and policy makers, but for anyone who wants to understand the roots of modern global conflict. The book serves as both a warning and a guide, reminding us that the past continues to shape the present and that only through a nuanced understanding of history can we hope to create a more just and peaceful future.

For students, historians, policymakers, and general readers, this book offers a crucial perspective on how history continues to influence political and social realities today. While it may not provide all the answers, it certainly deepens our understanding of the past and its impact on the present.